Gastrointestinal anthelmintic plants used on small ruminants in Benin: Traditional use and scientific results - Review.

In Benin, livestock breeders frequently use medicinal plants to treat gastrointestinal diseases in small ruminants. The aim of this review is to list the plants traditionally used in this context and to present the scientific findings on the efficacy of these plants. An extensive search was carried out using PubMed, Scopus, ScienceDirect, Biomed Central and Google Scholar databases to collect data, with combinations of relevant french and english keywords such as "ethnobotanical survey", "anthelmintic properties", "medicinal plants", "gastrointestinal parasites", "digestive strongyles", "Haemonchus", "Trichostrongylus", "small ruminants", "sheep", "goats" and "Benin". A total of 45 published articles met the eligibility criteria. This review listed 123 plants used by breeders to treat gastrointestinal ailments in small ruminants. The most commonly used parts are leaves and barks, and the most common forms are decoction, maceration and powder. Scientific studies have demonstrated the anthelmintic properties of 18 plants, including Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides, Newbouldia laevis, Mitragyna inermis and Combretum glutinosum. The powders or leaf extracts of these plants showed in vivo significant reductions of over 50% in egg excretion, larval establishment, viability and fertility of gastrointestinal strongyles in small ruminants. Extracts of these plants also revealed in vitro inhibitory activity of over 50% on egg hatching, larval migration and motility of gastrointestinal strongyles. This manuscript highlights the traditional use of anthelmintic plants in small ruminants in Benin and provides scientific results supporting the efficacy of these plants.

Evaluation of the effect of therapeutic durations on small ruminant bacterial pneumonia.

BACKGROUND: Sheep and goat production in Ethiopia is hindered by numerous substandard production systems and various diseases. Respiratory disease complexes (RDC) pose a significant threat to the productivity of these animals. Pneumonia is a common manifestation of respiratory disease complexes and often necessitates a prolonged course of antibiotic treatment. This study aimed to optimize and propose the ideal duration of therapy for pneumonia in sheep and goats. METHODS: The study was conducted from February to June 2021 at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of the College of Veterinary Medicine and Agriculture, Addis Ababa University. The study recruited 54 sheep and goats presented to the hospital for treatment with a confirmed RDC as determined based on clinical signs and bacteriological methods. The animals were randomly allocated to 5 groups each group receiving 10% oxytetracycline (Phenxyl, Phenix, Belgum) intramuscularly for a duration of 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 consecutive days. The treatment outcomes were assessed by recording vital signs (body temperature, respiratory rate, heart rate, coughing, and nasal discharges), performing lung ultrasonography (L-USG) as well as collection of nasal swabs for bacterial isolation and molecular identification before and after completion of the treatment. An ordered logistic regression model with random effects was employed to determine the optimal therapeutic duration, taking into account the cumulative scores of the outcome variables across the different groups. RESULTS: Among the 54 sheep and goats treated with 10% oxytetracycline, a total of 74.07% (95% CI, 60.35-85.04) achieved complete recovery, as confirmed through clinical, ultrasound, and bacteriological methods. In Group 1 (G1), out of 12 sheep and goats, 8 (83.0%) recovered completely; in Group 2 (G2), out of 11 animals, 9 (82.0%) recovered completely; in Group 3 (G3), out of 11 animals, 10 (93.0%) recovered completely; in Group 4 (G4), out of 9 animals, 9 (100.0%) recovered completely; and in Group 5 (G5), out of 11 animals, 10 (91.0%) recovered completely. Bacteriological examination of nasal swabs indicated involvement of M. hemolytica in 27 (50.00%) and P. multocida in 13 (24.07%) of pneumonic animals. Detection of specific marker genes confirmed only five of the presumptive M. hemolytica isolates, whilst no isolates tested positive for P. multocida. Post-treatment samples collected from recovered animals did not yield any M. hemolytica nor P. multocida. Based on results from clinical signs, L-USG, and bacterial infection variables, the group of sheep and goats treated for seven consecutive days (G5) showed the highest recovery score compared to the other groups, and there was a statistically significant difference (coefficient (ß) = - 2.296, p = 0.021) in variable score between G5 and G1. These findings suggest that the administration of 10% oxytetracycline for a full course of seven consecutive days resulted in symptomatic and clinical recovery rates from respiratory disease in sheep and goats.

Efficacy of eprinomectin 5 mg/mL topical solution administered pour on at 1 mg per kg body weight against Oestrus ovis myiasis in sheep and goats.

The larvae of the nasal bot, Oestrus ovis, mainly parasitize sheep and goats and some species of wild Caprinae but other mammals and humans are also vulnerable to infestation. Eprinomectin 5 mg/mL topical solution (EPRINEX® Multi, Boehringer Ingelheim) administered at 1 mg eprinomectin per kg body weight pour on was recently authorized as an anthelmintic for sheep and goats with zero hours milk withdrawal in several countries in Europe. As the product in cattle has claims against a broad range of parasites including insect parasites and activity against O. ovis has previously been reported following extra-label use in sheep, its therapeutic efficacy against ovine and caprine O. ovis myiasis was evaluated in three regulatory compliant, masked clinical studies. Pre-study recovery of O. ovis larvae from five or six of six randomly selected animals per study site (Bulgaria, one site, sheep; Greece, two sites, sheep or goats) supported the inclusion of the animals from those sites into the studies. The study animals (34 animals per study) were ranked based on bodyweight and allocated randomly to remain untreated (control) or to be treated with eprinomectin 5 mg/mL topical solution at 1 mL per 5 kg body weight pour on. Treatment efficacy was determined based on O. ovis larval counts of eprinomectin 5 mg/mL topical solution-treated vs. untreated animals three weeks after treatment administration. Live O. ovis larvae, including all three instars in each study, were recovered from 13 or 16 of the 17 control animals in the sheep studies (range, 1 to 14 or 5 to 18 larvae, respectively) and from all 17 controls in the goat study (range, 7 to 18 larvae). In each study, eprinomectin 5 mg/mL topical solution-treated animals had significantly (p < 0.001) fewer live O. ovis larvae than the controls. Efficacy of the treatment was 100% and 91.3% against the combined parasitic O. ovis larval stages in sheep and in goats, respectively. The treatment was well accepted by all animals and no health problems were observed throughout the studies. The results of these studies demonstrated eprinomectin 5 mg/mL topical solution administered pour on at 1 mL per 5 kg body weight to be an efficacious and safe treatment of ovine and caprine oestrosis.

Metaphylactic strategies using toltrazuril against coccidiosis in goat kids.

Goat coccidiosis compromises animal welfare, reduces productivity and may cause mortality and delayed growth rates in goat kids around the weaning period worldwide. This field study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of metaphylactic treatments with two doses of toltrazuril (20 or 40 mg/kg body weight - BW, p. o.), at different timing, in kids naturally infected with Eimeria spp. A total of 97 healthy goat kids (Majorera milk aptitude breed) were divided into five groups, depending on the age of treatment (2 or 7 weeks). One group remained untreated as a negative control until the end of the study. Faecal oocyst shedding, faecal consistency, and body weight of the animals were monitored at day 0 and at weekly intervals. Counts of oocysts per gram of faeces (OPG) were determined by a modified McMaster technique. Morphometric identification of Eimeria species was carried out on individual faecal samples from each experimental group after oocyst sporulation. Goat kids treated at two weeks of age maintained OPG values close to zero during the 5 weeks post-treatment and, overall, had lower faecal oocyst counts than untreated control animals. No significant differences were observed between the two doses of toltrazuril used in two-week-old treated animals. By contrast, when treatment was carried out at seven weeks of age, the dose of 40 mg/kg BW of toltrazuril reduced oocyst levels for longer and to a greater extent than the 20 mg/kg dose. Irrespectively of the treatment and dose, toltrazuril delayed the appearance of pathogenic Eimeria species, i. e. Eimeria ninakohlyakimovae and Eimeria arloingi. As a whole, Eimeria christenseni, with a rather moderate pathogenicity, was highly predominant throughout the study period, including the untreated control group, which was probably the reason why clinical signs of coccidiosis were barely observed throughout the experiment. Under these circumstances, the positive effect of toltrazuril on body weight condition observed in some treated groups was difficult to correlate to the timing and doses. Metaphylactic treatments with 20 mg/kg BW toltrazuril given at two weeks of age are sufficient to control oocyst excretion in goat kids; whereas if administered later in 7-week-old animals, thereby coinciding with the frequently observed peak of oocyst elimination in goat kids under field conditions, a higher dose might be advisable to prevent environmental contamination with infectious oocysts.

A novel case of cutaneous, nasal and systemic fusariosis in a goat.

The clinical findings associated with nasal, cutaneous and systemic fusariosis in a 3-year-old billy Boer goat are summarised. The clinical features, treatment, postmortem findings and laboratory diagnostics are reported and discussed in the context of existing knowledge on mycoses of small ruminants. The goat presented primarily for respiratory signs (inspiratory dyspnoea) with unilateral left-sided mucopurulent nasal discharge, and multifocal variably ulcerative and necrotic cutaneous nodules. Histopathology of nasal and cutaneous biopsies revealed necrotising pyogranulomatous inflammation with intralesional septate hyphal elements that correlated with culture of Fusarium oxysporum. The patient continued to deteriorate clinically during treatment with oxytetracycline and meloxicam, with the addition of sodium iodide and potassium iodide, and was humanely euthanased. Postmortem examination revealed multifocal nodular lesions throughout the kidneys, abdominal lymph nodes and lungs. These lesions were consistent with those identified antemortem from which F. oxysporum was cultured. Although treatment was unsuccessful, to the author's knowledge, no instance of rhinofacial or systemic caprine infection with Fusarium spp. has been documented in the veterinary literature, making this the first recognised instance of this form of infection in small ruminant species.

Successful use of intravenous and oral levetiracetam in a goat to control refractory seizures secondary to suspected polioencephalomalacia.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the clinical efficacy and plasma concentrations of levetiracetam in a goat with seizures. ANIMAL: A 5-month-old doeling. CLINICAL PRESENTATION, PROGRESSION, AND PROCEDURES: The goat was referred because of progressive anorexia and lethargy over 3 days. Clinical signs consisted of weakness, obtundation, opisthotonos, anisocoria, and cortical blindness. Initial evaluation was most consistent with polioencephalomalacia. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME: Neurologic improvement occurred within 4 hours of thiamine administration, with appetite returning over 12 hours. On day 3 of hospitalization, the goat suffered acute onset repetitive seizures that were incompletely responsive to standard interventions over 3 hours. Administration of IV levetiracetam (60 mg/kg) produced resolution of seizure activity within 20 minutes. Levetiracetam was continued twice daily IV, then PO after day 6. Plasma concentrations were above or within therapeutic ranges (5 to 45 µg/mL) as previously established for other species, following both IV and PO levetiracetam. Oral administration (60 mg/kg, PO, q 12 h) resulted in plasma levetiracetam concentrations of 48.1 µg/mL 2 hours after a dose and 23.4 µg/mL 2 hours prior to the next dose. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Levetiracetam is a newer anticonvulsant commonly used in humans and small animals due to its efficacy, cost, and wide safety margin. Its use has not previously been reported in domestic small ruminants. In this case, levetiracetam showed excellent clinical efficacy in the face of refractory seizures, with no apparent side effects. Plasma concentrations during oral administration were at the high end of the therapeutic range, indicating absorption in a nonmonogastric species. Further studies are warranted to determine optimal dosing in small ruminants.

Rapid, automated quantification of Haemonchus contortus ova in sheep faecal samples.

Haemonchus contortus is one of the most pathogenic nematodes affecting small ruminants globally and is responsible for large economic losses in the sheep and goat industry. Anthelmintic resistance is rampant in this parasite and thus parasite control programs must account for drug efficacy on individual farms and, sometimes, whether H. contortus is the most prevalent trichostrongylid. Historically, coproculture has been the main way to determine the prevalence of H. contortus in faecal samples due to the inability to morphologically differentiate between trichostrongylid egg types, but this process requires a skilled technician and takes multiple days to complete. Fluoresceinated peanut agglutinin (PNA) has been shown to specifically bind H. contortus and thus differentiate eggs based on whether they fluoresce, but this method has not been widely adopted. The ParasightTM System (PS) fluorescently stains helminth eggs in order to identify and quantify them, and the H. contortus PNA staining method was therefore adapted to this platform using methodology requiring only 20 min to obtain results. In this study, 74 fecal samples were collected from sheep and analyzed for PNA-stained H. contortus, using both PS and manual fluorescence microscopy. The percentage of H. contortus was determined based on standard total strongylid counts with PS or brightfield microscopy. Additionally, 15 samples were processed for coproculture with larval identification, and analyzed with both manual and automated PNA methods. All methods were compared using the coefficient of determination (R2) and the Lin's concordance correlation coefficient (ρc). ParasightTM and manual PNA percent H. contortus results were highly correlated with R2 = 0.8436 and ρc = 0.9100 for all 74 fecal samples. Coproculture versus PS percent H. contortus were also highly correlated with R2 = 0.8245 and ρc = 0.8605. Overall, this system provides a rapid and convenient method for determining the percentage of H. contortus in sheep and goat fecal samples without requiring specialized training.

A mixed amplicon metabarcoding and sequencing approach for surveillance of drug resistance to levamisole and benzimidazole in Haemonchus spp.

Anthelmintic-resistant parasitic nematodes present a significant threat to sustainable livestock production worldwide. The ability to detect the emergence of anthelmintic resistance at an early stage, and therefore determine which drugs remain most effective, is crucial for minimising production losses. Despite many years of research into the molecular basis of anthelmintic resistance, no molecular-based tools are commercially available for the diagnosis of resistance as it emerges in field settings. We describe a mixed deep amplicon sequencing approach to determine the frequency of the levamisole (LEV)-resistant single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) within arc-8 exon 4 (S168T) in Haemonchus spp., coupled with benzimidazole (BZ)-resistant SNPs within ß-tubulin isotype-1 and the internal transcribed spacer-2 (ITS-2) nemabiome. This constitutes the first known multi-drug and multi-species molecular diagnostic developed for helminths of veterinary importance. Of the ovine, bovine, caprine and camelid Australian field isolates we tested, S168T was detected in the majority of Haemonchus spp. populations from sheep and goats, but rarely at a frequency greater than 16%; an arbitrary threshold we set based on whole genome sequencing (WGS) of LEV-resistant Haemonchus contortus GWBII. Overall, BZ resistance was far more prevalent in Haemonchus spp. than LEV resistance, confirming that LEV is still an effective anthelmintic class for small ruminants in New South Wales, Australia. The mixed amplicon metabarcoding approach described herein paves the way towards the use of large scale sequencing as a surveillance technology in the field, the results of which can be translated into evidence-based recommendations for the livestock sector.

Clinical presentation, diagnostics, treatment, and outcome of goats diagnosed with presumptive cerebrospinal nematodiasis at a veterinary teaching hospital.

This retrospective study describes clinical presentation, diagnostic approach, treatment, and outcome for goats with presumptive cerebrospinal nematodiasis. A presumptive diagnosis was made based on neurologic signs, results of cerebrospinal fluid analysis, and response to treatment. Six goats were identified that met inclusion criteria. Cerebrospinal fluid analysis revealed eosinophilic pleocytosis (total nucleated cell count: 12 to 430/µL, 33 to 89% eosinophils). All 6 goats were treated with fenbendazole and anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs ± corticosteroids) and 4 received physical rehabilitation therapy. At discharge or follow-up, all 6 goats were ambulatory and had minimal neurologic deficits. Key clinical message: In goats, cerebrospinal nematodiasis caused by Parelaphostrongylus tenuis is often a presumptive diagnosis based on neurologic signs, shared habitat with white-tailed deer, eosinophilic pleocytosis, and response to anthelmintic therapy. Presumptive cases in goats have many similarities to confirmed cases in camelids. Further study is indicated to characterize the clinical signs and optimize the diagnosis and treatment of goats infected with P. tenuis.

Présentation clinique, diagnostic, traitement et devenir des chèvres diagnostiquées avec une nématodose cérébro-spinale présumée dans un hôpital d'enseignement vétérinaire. Cette étude rétrospective décrit la présentation clinique, l'approche diagnostique, le traitement et les résultats pour des chèvres atteintes de nématodose cérébro-spinale présumée. Un diagnostic présomptif a été posé sur la base des signes neurologiques, des résultats de l'analyse du liquide céphalo-rachidien et de la réponse au traitement. Six chèvres ont été identifiées qui répondaient aux critères d'inclusion. L'analyse du liquide céphalo-rachidien a révélé une pléocytose éosinophile (nombre total de cellules nucléées : 12 à 430/µL, 33 à 89 % d'éosinophiles). Les six chèvres ont été traitées avec du fenbendazole et des anti-inflammatoires (AINS ± corticostéroïdes) et quatre ont reçu une thérapie de réadaptation physique. À la sortie ou au suivi, les six chèvres étaient ambulatoires et présentaient des déficits neurologiques minimes.Message clinique clé :Chez les chèvres, la nématodose cérébro-spinale causée par Parelaphostrongylus tenuis est souvent un diagnostic présomptif basé sur des signes neurologiques, un habitat partagé avec des cerfs de Virginie, une pléocytose éosinophile et une réponse à un traitement anthelminthique. Les cas présumés chez les chèvres présentent de nombreuses similitudes avec les cas confirmés chez les camélidés. Une étude plus approfondie est indiquée pour caractériser les signes cliniques et optimiser le diagnostic et le traitement des chèvres infectées par P. tenuis.(Traduit par Dr Serge Messier).

Low-dose epidural anesthesia decreases the use of intraoperative systemic analgesics in goats undergoing lower urinary tract surgery.

OBJECTIVE: To test whether the use of low-dose epidural anesthesia (EA) in goats undergoing lower urinary tract surgery reduces the requirements of perioperative analgesics, contributes to intraoperative hypotension, and improves postoperative comfort during the first 24 hours after surgery. ANIMALS: Retrospective analysis of 38 goats between January 2019 and July 2022. PROCEDURES: Goats were divided into 2 groups (EA or no EA). Demographic characteristics, surgical procedure, time of anesthesia, and anesthetic agents used were compared between treatment groups. Outcome variables potentially related to the use of EA included dose of inhalational anesthetics, incidence of hypotension (mean arterial pressure < 60 mm Hg), intraoperative and postoperative administration of morphine, and time to first meal after surgery. RESULTS: EA (n = 21) consisted of bupivacaine or ropivacaine 0.1% to 0.2% with an opioid. There were no differences between groups except for age (EA group was younger). Less inhalational anesthetic (P = .03) and less intraoperative morphine (P = .008) were used in the EA group. The incidence of hypotension was 52% for EA and 58% for no EA (P = .691). Administration of postoperative morphine was not different between groups (EA, 67%, and no EA, 53%; P = .686). Time to first meal was 7.5 hours (3 to 18 hours) for EA and 11 hours (2 to 24 hours) for no EA (P = .057). CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Low-dose EA reduced the use of intraoperative anesthetics/analgesics in goats undergoing lower urinary tract surgery without an increased incidence of hypotension. Postoperative morphine administration was not reduced.

Population pharmacokinetics and pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic evaluation of marbofloxacin against Coagulase-negative staphylococci, Staphylococcus aureus and Mycoplasma agalactiae pathogens in goats.

Marbofloxacin is a broad-spectrum fluoroquinolone, and an extra-label use has been reported in horse, sheep and goat. However, extrapolation of dosage regimens from cattle to horse and small ruminants could lead to incorrect dosing due to pharmacokinetic differences among species, increasing the risk of antimicrobial resistance or toxicity. Pharmacokinetic properties of marbofloxacin, including PK/PD analysis, have been studied by intravenous, intramuscular and subcutaneous administration in lactating and non-lactating goats. A population pharmacokinetic model of marbofloxacin in goats was built using 10 pharmacokinetic studies after intravenous, intramuscular, and subcutaneous administration at a dose of 2, 5 and 10 mg/kg. Serum or plasma and milk concentration-time profiles were simultaneously fitted with a non-linear mixed effect model with Monolix software. Level of milk production (lactating and non-lactating) and health status (healthy and un-healthy) were retained as covariates on volume of distribution and clearance. Marbofloxacin concentrations were well described in plasma/serum and milk by the population model. Simulated dose regimens of marbofloxacin administered at 2, 5 and 10 mg/kg by intramuscular route for five days were evaluated (n = 5000 per group). Steady-state fAUCs for each dose regimen were obtained. Probability of target attainment of fAUC/MIC ratios were determined and PK/PDco values (highest MIC for which 90% of individuals can achieve a prior numerical value of the fAUC/MIC index) were established using Monte Carlo simulations (n = 50,000). MIC values for wild type isolates of Staphylococcus aureus, coagulase negative staphylococci, and Mycoplasma agalactiae were determined and tentative epidemiological cutoff (TECOFF) were obtained at 1.0, 0.5 and 0.5 mg/L, respectively. The PK/PDco for the dose regimen of 2 mg/kg/24 h and 5 mg/kg/24 h (0.125 and 0.25 mg/L) were lower than TECOFF (0.5 and 1 mg/L). The dosage regimen of 10 mg/kg/24 h was adequate for intermediate MIC values of 0.125-0.50 mg/L and could be effective for a population with a target fAUC/MIC ratio ˂ 48 for Coagulase negative staphylococci and Mycoplasma agalactiae, but not for Staphylococcus aureus. Results obtained in this study could be taken as a starting point by committees that set the clinical breakpoints and justifies expert rules to optimize marbofloxacin dose regimens.

Modelling bodyweight to avoid anthelmintic underdosing of goats in resources-limited settings.

Improved management of livestock in resource-limited settings can provide a means towards improved human nutrition and livelihoods. However, gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) are a significant production-limiting factor. Anthelmintics play a role in GIN management; however, few anthelmintic classes are available in many low-middle-income countries. Utilising a limited range of classes may increase selection for anthelmintic resistance; therefore, strategies to reduce other selective pressures are of heightened importance. Avoiding anthelmintic underdosing is one such strategy, but it can be challenging without access to accurate bodyweight measurement. Many previous studies have used thoracic girth as a practical proxy for bodyweight in goats; however, they have rarely considered the potential impact of natural variation on therapeutic doses. Here, the relationship between bodyweight and thoracic girth was modelled using data from 820 goats from three Malawian biomes in two seasons, with the specific aim of avoiding underestimation of bodyweight. The internally cross-validated linear regression (∛Weight ~ 0.053 + 0.040*Girth, R2 = 0.92, rounded up to the nearest 5 kg) was validated against data from an additional 352 Malawian goats (1.4% of goats allocated an underdose and 10.2% allocated a dose > 200% of bodyweight). The equation was further externally validated using an historical dataset of 150 goats from Assam, India (2.7% of goats were allocated to an underdose and 24.8% allocated to a > 200% of bodyweight). These results suggest that a more globally generalisable approach may be feasible, provided the accuracy of the estimate is considered alongside the therapeutic index of the pharmaceutical.

The effect of multiple-dose ivermectin treatment on CD4+/CD8+ and the oxidative stress index in goats with udder viral papillomatosis.

This study aims to reveal the therapeutic effect of ivermectin against Capra hircus papillomavirus (ChPV-1) infection and on the CD4+/CD8+ (cluster of differentiation) and oxidative stress index (OSI). Twenty hair goats naturally infected with ChPV-1 were divided into two groups with equal numbers as the ivermectin group and the control groups. Ivermectin was administered subcutaneously at a dose of 0.2 mg/kg to the goats in the ivermectin group on days 0, 7, and 21. Blood samples were collected from the vena jugularis on days 0, 21, 45, and 90. The cluster of differentiation4+/CD8+ ratio was significantly higher in the ivermectin group than in the control group on the 90th day. Furthermore, the CD8+ concentration was significantly decreased in the ivermectin group on the 90th day compared with the control group. Both total oxidant status (TOS) and OSI were found to be significantly higher in the control group on the 21st and 45th days than in the ivermectin group. On the 90th day, it was determined that the lesions in the ivermectin group improved significantly compared to those in the control group. Additionally, only in the ivermectin group was there a significant difference between the 90th day and the other days in terms of healing. As a result, it can be suggested that ivermectin has positive effects on the immune response and that its oxidative actions are of therapeutic value and do not harm the systemic oxidative status, as in untreated goats.

Mange: Epidemiology and ivermectin efficacy in goats and application of zero-inflated negative binomial regression in Uba Debre Tsehay, southern Ethiopia.

Mites are one of the most common and widely distributed ectoparasites of goats in Ethiopia, contributing to major burdens in livestock productivity in the country. Between February 2021 and July 2021, this study was conducted to estimate the prevalence of mange mites, assess the potential risk factors, identify the species infesting goats, and evaluate the efficacy of ivermectin in naturally infested goats in the Uba Debere Tsehay district of Gofa Zone, Southern Ethiopia. A cross-sectional study, longitudinal field efficacy, and questionnaire survey were conducted. A total of 384 goats suspected of having mange were scraped for mite prevalence and count. The mite count data were analyzed using zero-inflated negative binomial (ZINB) models with explanatory variables. The ZINB models indicated that a substantial proportion of the observed zero mite count reflected a failure to detect mites in suspected goats, meaning that the estimated true prevalence was much higher than the apparent prevalence as calculated using a simple proportion of nonzero mite counts. Overall prevalence of mange was 21.87% (84/384) in the study areas. Sarcoptes species (21.09%) and Demodex species (0.78%) were the mite genera identified in this study. Among goats with poor, medium, and good body conditions, mite prevalence was 36.3%, 12.3%, and 10.9%, respectively. Both the prevalence and intensity of infestation were significantly associated with body condition scores, but other risk factors were not. The questionnaire survey indicated that 85.94% of the participants preferred to use modern treatment options (ivermectin 1%, injection) and 76.56% (98/128) respondents replied that ivermectin treatment is effective. Wilcoxon rank-sum test analysis shows that there was significantly (P < 0.05) fewer mites counted on goats treated with ivermectin than on untreated goats at each count up to day 56 after treatment. No live mites were found on any treated animal on days 28 and 56. Mixed ANOVA indicated that there was a significant difference within treatment groups. This study showed that mites are one of the constraints to goat production in the study area and ivermectin was highly effective against Demodex and Sarcoptes mites in goats. Hence, there is a need to create awareness about the impact of mange on goat production, and appropriate ivermectin treatment against mites should be implemented.

Reducing anthelmintic inputs in organic farming: Are small ruminant farmers integrating alternative strategies to control gastrointestinal nematodes?

To counter the global spread of anthelmintic resistance (AR), considerable efforts have been invested in the development and dissemination of sustainable alternatives to control gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) infections in small ruminants. The degree to which these have been accepted and integrated by farmers, particularly in organic systems, where the drive to reduce chemical inputs is arguably even more pressing, has been little studied. To identify whether more comprehensive actions are needed to support the uptake of alternative GIN controls amongst organic farmers, this study conducted a survey in five European countries on organic dairy goat and meat sheep farmers to gain insight into current GIN control strategies and farmer attitudes towards AR and alternative measures in these countries. The structured survey was disseminated in the five European countries Switzerland, France, Netherlands, Lithuania and United Kingdom, receiving a total of 425 responses, 106 from organic dairy goat farmers and 319 from organic meat sheep farmers. Regression analyses were carried out to identify factors impacting anthelmintic drenching on meat sheep production systems, whereas all data were analysed descriptively. Four key findings emerged: i) The frequency of anthelmintic treatments averaged less than two per animal a year in all production systems; ii) Overall, organic farmers seemed well informed on the availability of alternative GIN control methods, but fewer stated to put them into practice; iii) Targeted selective treatment (TST) strategies of anthelmintics appears to be not commonly incorporated by organic farmers; iv) Despite operating under national and EU organic regulations, each of the organic dairy goat (Switzerland, France and Netherlands) and meat sheep (Switzerland, Lithuania and United Kingdom) production systems developed distinct approaches for GIN control. To increase uptake of alternatives to GIN control and optimise anthelmintic use, initiatives that promote research dissemination, farmer participatory and knowledge transfer activities at national level would be desirable.

Effects of ozonized glycerin on inflammation of mammary glands induced by intramammary lipopolysaccharide infusion in goats.

Although ozone shows antimicrobial activity against mastitis-causing pathogens in ruminants, its anti-inflammatory effect on mammary glands remains unclear. The aim of this study was to examine the anti-inflammatory effects of ozonized glycerin (OG) on experimentally induced inflammation in the mammary glands of six Shiba and two Tokara lactating goats. We infused 1 µg lipopolysaccharide (LPS) into all udders on day -1. On day 0, post LPS infusion, OG (ozone group), and glycerin (control group) were infused into the right and left sides of the udders, respectively. Milk samples were collected once daily from days -1 to 7. The somatic cell count and lactoperoxidase (LPO) activity, along with the interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß), tumor necrosis factor-α, IL-8, IL-10, lactoferrin, and sodium ion concentrations in milk were measured. IL-8, IL-10, and lactoferrin levels after LPS infusion in the ozone group were significantly lower than those in the control group, and the LPO activity tended to be lower than that observed in the control group. This study showed that OG has anti-inflammatory potential against LPS-induced inflammation in the mammary glands.

Epidemiology, prevention and control of gastrointestinal helminths of small ruminants in the Caribbean region-a scoping review.

This review gathered information from peer-reviewed publications on the epidemiology, prevention and control of gastrointestinal helminths (GIHs) parasites of small ruminants in the Caribbean region from 1990 to 2021. Literature search was performed on four electronic databases using a combination of search terms and Boolean operators. Results showed that gastrointestinal nematodes (GINs) were the most common parasites, with seven genera documented across six reviewed countries. Haemonchus contortus was the most common species occurring in all six countries, and predominant in occasions where mixed infections were observed. Moniezia species were the only Platyhelminth species documented in Trinidad and Grenada. The overall prevalence of GIH infections was observed to be high in goats than in sheep. A high level of anthelminthic resistance (AR) with H. contortus was reported, whilst other nematodes showed to be effectively controlled by one or more anthelmintic drugs. FAMACHA© method was applied in the identification of anaemic animals for selective treatment, hence contributing to the decreased use of anthelmintic drugs. There is a need for national surveys of GIHs and AR in small ruminants in the Caribbean countries. Surveys, coupled with the use of molecular techniques to detect and identify species of GIHs present in the Caribbean region, as well as their epidemiology which will inform development of integrated control strategies is recommended. There is also a need to create awareness to small ruminant farmers in the region on the prevailing challenge of AR and limit wanton use of anthelminthics to reduce or prevent AR in small ruminants.

Anthelmintic intoxication in goats and sheep: A systematic review.

The objective of this study was to conduct research of the literature available in electronic media on anthelmintic intoxication in sheep and goats. The search for primary studies was carried out in five electronic databases: ScienceDirect, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and SciELO. The search terms used were (antihelmintic OR antiparasitic OR vermifuge) AND (poisoning OR toxicity OR overdose OR intoxication) AND (goat OR sheep). A total of 2361 articles were identified from the five databases: Science Direct (n = 1869), PubMed (n = 434), Scopus (n = 37), Web of Science (n = 16), and SciELO (n = 5). As 111 articles were found in duplicates, 2250 were left for review of the title and abstracts, of which 115 were read in full, and 28 were included in the systematic review. Of the 28 articles, 16 involved sheep, 9 involved goats, and 3 involved both species. Twelve drugs were identified in intoxication reports: albendazole (2), closantel (14), disophenol (1), ivermectin (1), levamisole (2), moxidectin (1), netobimin (1), nitroxinil (1), oxfendazole (2), parbendazole (2), tetramizole (1), and thiabendazole (1). The most prevalent symptoms of anthelmintic intoxication reported were showed involvement of the nervous, locomotor, and renal systems, as well as teratogenic influences. Data from this review underscore the need of the care required in the control of parasitic infections through the safe use of antiparasitic drugs to avoid cases of intoxication.

In vitro and in vivo anthelmintic properties of Caesalpinia coriaria fruits against Haemonchus contortus.

The purpose of the present study was to assay the in vitro and in vivo anthelmintic activity (AA) of Caesalpinia coriaria (Cc) mature fruits against the nematode Haemonchus contortus (Hc). The Hc infective larvae were used to assess the in vitro AA through larval mortality assay. The exposure of larvae to the different treatments was performed in 96-well microtitration plates. The treatments were as follows: hydroalcoholic extract (HA-E, at 25-100 mg/mL), aqueous fraction (Aq-F, at 12.5-50 mg/mL), organic fraction (EtOAc-F at 12.5-50 mg/mL), compounds (1, methyl gallate and 2, gallic acid at 1.25-10 mg/mL), positive control (ivermectin at 5 mg/mL) and two negative controls (distilled water and 4% methanol). After exposure, dead and live larvae were quantified and results were compared to their controls. The in vivo assay was carried out by a faecal egg count reduction test (FECRT); artificially infected goat kids (F1: Boer x Nubia) were treated with Cc ground dried fruits to assess the AA. The treatments were established as follows: G1-untreated goats (negative control), G2-goats dewormed with ivermectin (positive control), G3-goats fed with Cc mature fruits (10% of their diet). Results in both in vitro and in vivo assays were analysed using an ANOVA through random design, applying a general linear model and mixed models. The in vitro results showed an evident larvicidal effect of the HA-E, EtOAc-F from Cc, indicating that the compound responsible for the AA was gallic acid. The results of the in vivo study corroborated the anthelmintic properties of Cc, reaching 78.6% reduction in the elimination of Hc eggs per gram of faeces. This plant represents a potential natural anthelmintic for the control of haemonchosis in goats under grazing conditions. Future studies should standardise the Cc extract or dried fruits for use in the management of nematodiasis in goat herds.

Pancreatic eurytrematosis in small ruminants: A forgotten disease or an untold history?

Trematodiosis are among the most neglected parasitic diseases worldwide. The pancreatic eurytrematosis (PE) is a chronic parasitic infection mostly reported in cattle but has been unnoticed in small ruminants for many decades. Our review showed PE has been recorded as scattered regional reports in goats and sheep, mainly in Asia and Eastern Europe. Eurytrema coelomaticum, Eurytrema cladorchis, and Eurytrema pancreaticum have been the main pathogenic species infecting pancreatic ducts of small ruminants. Climatic, environmental, and regional conditions in both hemispheres may support the survival and feasibility of intermediate hosts and parasitic forms, enabling the emergence and spread of PE in small ruminants. As a primarily asymptomatic condition, PE in goats and sheep flocks may also have a high prevalence, causing severe parasitic pancreatitis, production losses, and death. There is little information on anthelmintic therapeutics for PE in small ruminants, and most used anti-fluke drugs are ineffective. PE is likely more unnoticed than a neglected trematodiosis in goats and sheep, or both from a global perspective.